Living systems are all made of many molecular components that self- assemble, recognize as well as control each other and self- replicate ... How can it be that proteins, describable by the laws of physics, assemble themselves into cellular machines and structures, these into complete living cells, and the latter into whole organisms that require a whole new language for their description? Opportunities in Molecular Biomedicine in the Era of  Teraflop Computing, March 3 & 4, 1999, Rockville, MD http://www.ks.uiuc.edu/Publications/Reports/teraflop/node4.html

Finding guide to terms in these glossaries Biology & chemistry map      Site Map
Related glossaries include Applications Functional genomics
Technologies Genetic manipulation & disruption Labels, Signaling & Detection, Molecular Imaging
Biology Chemistry & biology Model & other organisms  Stem cells  

Adenosine Triphosphate ATP: Adenosine 5'- (tetrahydrogen triphosphate). An adenine nucleotide containing three phosphate groups esterified to the sugar moiety. In addition to its crucial roles in metabolism adenosine triphosphate is a neurotransmitter. [MeSH]

Alliance for Cellular Signaling AfCS: The overall goal of the Alliance for Cellular Signaling is to understand as completely as possible the relationships between sets of inputs and outputs in signaling cells that vary both temporally and spatially. The same goal, stated from a slightly different perspective, is to understand fully how cells interpret signals in a context-dependent manner. This will involve identification of all the proteins that comprise the various signaling systems, the assessment of time- dependent information flow through the systems in both normal and pathological states, and finally the reduction of the mass of detailed data into a set of interacting theoretical models that describe cellular signaling. www.signaling-gateway.org  
Related term: cellular signaling

angiogenesis: Angiogenesis, the growth of new capillary blood vessels in the body, is an important natural process in the body used for healing and reproduction. The body controls angiogenesis by producing a precise balance of growth and inhibitory factors in healthy tissues. When this balance is disturbed, the result is either too much or too little angiogenesis. Abnormal blood vessel growth, either excessive or insufficient, is now recognized as a “common denominator” underlying many deadly and debilitating conditions, including cancer, skin diseases, age-related blindness, diabetic ulcers, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and many others. Angiogenesis Foundation "Understanding Angiogenesis http://www.angio.org/understanding/understanding.html

Angiogenesis Inhibitors, NIH, US http://www.cancer.gov/clinical_trials/doc.aspx?viewid=e68213b0-db75-474a-b35f-1b3496a2dd30

apoptosis:  The molecular and morphological processes leading to controlled cellular self- destruction was first introduced in a publication by Kerr, Wyllie and Currie (Br. J. Cancer, 1972, 26: 239). 'Apoptosis' is of Greek origin, having the meaning "falling off or dropping off", in analogy to leaves falling from trees or petals from flowers. By choosing this term, the authors might have intended to stress that this form of cell death is a natural phenomenon, an active and defined process which plays an important role in the regulation of the cell population in tissues upon physiological and pathological conditions. Apoptotic cell death can be induced by a variety of stimuli, such as ligation of cell surface receptors, starvation, growth factor/ survival factor deprivation, heat shock, hypoxia, DNA damage, viral infection, and cytotoxic/ chemotherapeutical agents. The apoptotic process is of widespread biological significance, and it was reported to be involved in embryogenesis, differentiation, proliferation/ homoeostasis, removal of defect and therefore harmful cells, and especially in the regulation and function of the immune system. Thus, dysfunction or disregulation of the apoptotic program is implicated in a variety of pathological conditions, such as immunodeficiency, auto- immune diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Apoptopedia, Cell Death Encyclopedia, 2001 http://www.celldeath.de/encyclo/index.html Click on A, go to Apoptosis entry and click on more.

One of the two mechanisms by which CELL DEATH occurs (the other being the pathological process of NECROSIS). Apoptosis is the mechanism responsible for the physiological deletion of cells and appears to be intrinsically programmed. It is characterized by distinctive morphologic changes in the nucleus and cytoplasm, chromatin cleavage at regularly spaced sites, and the endonucleolytic cleavage of genomic DNA (DNA FRAGMENTATION) at internucleosomal sites. This mode of cell death serves as a balance to mitosis in regulating the size of animal tissues and in mediating pathologic processes associated with tumor growth. MeSH, 1993   Broader term: cell death   See also programmed cell death.

Apoptopedia, CellDeath.de, Germany   http://www.celldeath.de/encyclo/index.html
Apoptosis glossary, Biosource International, US http://www.biosource.com/content/literatureContent/apopglossary/glossary.asp

artificial cells: Artificial cells designed for specific applications combine properties of biological systems such as nanoscale efficiency, self- organization and adaptability at relatively low cost. Individual components needed for such structures have already been developed, and now the main challenge is to integrate them in functional microscopic compartments. Andrew Pohorille, "Artificial cells, prospects for biotechnology" Trends in Biotechnology, 20 (3): 123- 128, Mar. 2002

artificial chromosomes: DNA constructs that are composed of, at least, elements such as a REPLICATION ORIGIN; TELOMERE; and CENTROMERE, that are required for successful replication, propagation to and maintenance in progeny cells. In addition, they are constructed to carry other sequences for analysis or gene transfer. MeSH, 2001  
Narrower terms: Bacterial artificial chromosome BACS, Yeast Artificial Chromosomes YACS 

autosome:  A chromosome not involved in sex determination. The diploid human genome consists of 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs of autosomes, and 1 pair of  sex chromosomes (the X and Y chromosomes). [DOE]  
Related terms: autosomal, somatic cells Molecular Medicine glossary.

BAC: See Bacterial Artificial Chromosome.

Bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC): A vector used to clone DNA fragments (100- to 300-kb insert size; average, 150 kb) in Escherichia coli cells. Based on naturally occurring F-factor plasmid found in the bacterium E. coli. Compare cloning vector.  [DOE] 

DNA constructs that are composed of, at least, a REPLICATION ORIGIN, for successful replication, propagation to and maintenance as an extra chromosome in bacteria. In addition, they can carry large amounts (about 200 kilobases) of other sequence for a variety of bioengineering purposes. MeSH, 2002   
Related term: BAC maps. Maps, genetic & genomic glossary.

biofabrication:  Biomaterials & bioengineering glossary

bioreactors: See Chemistry & biology glossary

CHO cells: Cell line derived from the ovary of the Chinese hamster, Cricetulus griseus. The species is a favorite for cytogenetic studies because of its small chromosome number. The cell line has provided model systems  for the study of genetic alterations in cultured mammalian cells.  MeSH, 1992

cell, cells: The smallest structural unit of living matter capable of functioning autonomously. [IUPAC Biotech]

The basic unit of any living organism. It is a small, watery, compartment filled with chemicals and a complete copy of the organism's genome. [NHGRI]  
Narrower terms: clone, embryonic stem cells ES, gametes, germ cells, hematopoietic stem cells, Mesenchymal Stem Cells MSC, pluripotent stem cells, somatic cell, stem cells, CHO cells Chinese Hamster Ovary cells, T cells 

Related terms: cell cycle, cell division, cell line, cell mapping, cellular component, cytogenetics, eukaryotes, FACS, flow sorting, host, hybridoma, Laser Capture Microdissection, multicellular, multipotent organelles, pluripotent, totipotent, cell culture, cell differentiation, cell fusion, cell patterning, cell strain, lysis, meiosis, mitosis, prokaryotes, subcellular fractionation

cell adhesion molecules:  Surface ligands, usually glycoproteins, that mediate cell- to- cell adhesion. Their functions include the assembly and interconnection of various vertebrate systems, as well as maintenance of tissue integration, wound healing, morphogenic movements, cellular migrations, and metastasis.  MeSH, 1990

cell arrays: Microarrays categories

cell assays: Assays & screening glossary

cell-based imaging: Molecular Imaging glossary

cell biochips: Microarrays categories

cell chips: Microarrays glossary

cell culture: The in vitro propagation of animal of plant cells, in an artificial nutrient medium. IUPAC Biotech

This meeting will explore today’s evolving strategies and technologies for improving the robustness of mammalian cell cultivation. From media enhancement and cell growth to scaling up, automation, and manufacturing, this leading cell culture meeting is designed to provide helpful information to optimize the job of growing cells. Optimizing Cell Culture Technology Aug, 2009, Cambridge MA

Coriell Cell Repositories  http://locus.umdnj.edu/ccr/ 

cell culture techniques: A technique for maintaining or growing CELLS in vitro. Cultures of dispersed cells derived directly from fresh TISSUES are called primary cell cultures. Cultures may also derive from established CELL LINE usually stored frozen.  MeSH 2005 (1996)  
Narrower terms: CHO cells, cell line; Pharmaceutical biology hybridomas, mammalian cell culture, stem cells

cell cycle:  The growth cycle of a cell from one division to the next. In eukaryotic cells the growth cycle is divided into the following 4 phases: G1- phase: the period of the cycle beginning after mitosis and preceding the initiation of DNA synthesis. S-phase: discrete period of cell cycle when most DNA synthesis occurs. G2- phase: period of cell cycle when cells contain twice the G1 complement of DNA. M-phase: division of the cell into two (cf. mitosis), each with one complete genome. [IUPAC Biotech]

The complex series of phenomena, occurring between the end of one cell division and the end of the next, by which cellular material is divided between daughter cells. MeSH, 1978    
Related terms: meiosis, mitosis; Proteins glossary checkpoint control proteins; Functional genomics glossary

cell cycle proteins: Proteins that control the cell division cycle. This family of proteins includes a wide variety of classes, including CYCLIN- DEPENDENT KINASES, mitogen- activated kinases, CYCLINS, and phosphoprotein phosphatases (PHOSPHOPROTEIN PHOSPHATASE) as well as their putative substrates such as chromatin- associated proteins, cytoskeletal proteins, and transcription factors. MeSH, 1995  
Related terms: cell cycle; Expression: transcription factors

cell death: The termination of the cell's ability to carry out vital functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, responsiveness, and adaptability.  MeSH 1992   
See also programmed cell death. Narrower term: apoptosis

cell differentiation: Progressive restriction of the developmental potential and increasing specialization of function which takes place during the development of the embryo and leads to the formation of specialized cells, tissues, and organs. MeSH, 1966  
Related terms: multipotent, pluripotent, stem cells, totipotent

cell division: Milestones, from Nature Publishing http://www.nature.com/celldivision/index.html

cell function: The level at which we wish to understand the function of the cell determines to a large extent the degree of experimental reductionism required. The smallest building block required to understand the function of the cell appears to be the protein. While the genetic sequence provides the basic informational foundation of the cell, it is the network of protein- gene, protein- protein, and protein- metabolite interactions - the fluxes and flows of material and information -  which result in cell function.

Studies of whole cell dynamics currently employ optical imaging of diffusion, generally through the use of steady state or dynamic photobleaching recovery methods. Associated with such studies is the need to label specific intracellular entities. Expansion of these approaches to include the wealth of protein species in the cell will involve development of new labeling methods, new dyes and means of introducing them; widely scaling imaging techniques permitting examination of the whole cell or of intracellular compartments; NMR micro- imaging techniques, particularly those sensitive to chemical species; environmental EM techniques, which may provide the capability of rapid single cell microprobe analysis; creative evanescent wave approaches to characterizing the cell membrane; and new tools capable of mechanical assessment of global (and local) mechanical properties of the cell. ...

Ultimately, the systematic characterization of cell biology will be the result of the efforts of a great many laboratories integrated over many years. Archiving and interpreting (understanding) these results will require coordination at all levels. Whether or not the paradigm of the Human Genome Project is appropriate for integrating such cell- level studies was discussed at length with the full realization that overriding clinical, pharmaceutical, and cell biology questions may ultimately focus the effort more effectively than a central coordinating agency. Whatever organizational paradigm is employed, there are fundamental and overriding infrastructural issues which must be addressed at the outset, the most urgent of which are the development of enabling technologies and the creation of highly defined panels of cell types for the use of the research community [National Center for Research Resources "Integrated Genomics Technologies Workshop Report" Jan 1999]   

cell fusion: Fusion of somatic cells in vitro or in vivo, which results in somatic cell hybridization. MeSH  
Broader term: fusion. Narrower term electroporation

cell genotype: Genetic makeup of cells. Related term: cell phenotypes

cell line: Defined unique population of cells obtained by culture from a primary implant through numerous generations. [IUPAC Tox] Often mammalian. 

ATCC American Type Culture Collection http://www.atcc.org/Home.cfm  
Narrower terms: CHO cells, cell strain; Broader term: cell culture

cell mapping: Maps genomic & genetic 

cell microarrays: Microarrays categories

cell migration:  Directed cell migration accompanies us from conception to death. This integrated process choreographs the morphogenesis of the embryo during development. The failure of cells to migrate or migration of cells to inappropriate locations can result in life threatening consequences ... In the adult, cell migration is central to homeostatic processes ... . It contributes to pathologies including vascular disease, chronic inflammatory diseases, and tumor formation and metastasis. Understanding cell migration is also becoming important to emerging areas of biotechnology which focus on cellular transplantation and the manufacture of artificial tissues. Cell Migration Consortium, Primer on Cell Migration, 2005 http://www.cellmigration.org/science/sci_migration.html  

cell patterning: The shape of a cell can tell us much about its status. The fate of a cell, whether it will divide, differentiate, or undergo apoptosis, is closely dependent on whether it is spread or rounded.  However it is still unclear how cell shape is sensed and how the signal is transduced.  In recent years, various forms of photolithography and micro- fabrication technology have made it possible to precisely control the shape of a cell. These technologies involve creating micron scale patterns of cell adhesive islands on a non- adhesive background. Cells seeded on patterned surfaces are only able to attach to the adhesive areas and consequently adopt the shape of the adhesive island.  However, the current microfabrication technology only allows patterning on rigid surfaces. Thus after the cell has attached, the experimenter cannot change the shape of the cell nor control the rate of cell spreading. Our goal is to develop a simple patterning technique on flexible polymer surfaces. Though stretching the polymer substrate which cells are attached to, we can control the time as well as the magnitude of cell shape changes. By fully taking advantage of this capability, experiments designed to elucidate the shape signaling pathway can be performed more elegantly and in a more controlled manner. For example, we can now allow cells to fully attach before changing the shape of the cell. This way, biochemical signals that result from the seeding and initial attachment of the cell from solution will no longer add noise to the data. A better understanding of the pathway cell use to sense and respond to shape changes may lead to new treatments for various diseases. [John L. Tan, Biomedical Engineering Dept. Johns Hopkins Univ.] http://www.bme.jhu.edu/labs/cchen/John/patterning.htm

cell phenotype: Examples of cell phenotypes found in the literature include life and death cell phenotypes, and gene expression studies of cancer cells.  Related term: biomarkers, cell genotype

Google = about 4,460 Aug. 21, 2002; about 770,000 June 15, 2007, about 842,.000 Nov 12, 2007

cell physiology: While it [prediction of  the three- dimensional structure and function of proteins from their linear sequence information] would be a remarkable accomplishment, the future achievement of a satisfactory protein structure/ function predictive capability will simply provide a second important substratum upon which to begin the exploration of the intricacies of the operation of the living cell, since it is the interactions among cell proteins which, in large part, define cell physiology. Biologists understand a great deal about the protein constituents of cells, their roles in metabolism, the signaling roles of small molecules and selective modifications of intracellular proteins, and how cellular structures assemble themselves and transduce energy, but it is unlikely that a useful understanding of the cell will be possible until a quantitative appreciation of both rates and equilibria of molecular processes in the living cell is achieved. [National Center for Research Resources "Integrated Genomics Technologies Workshop Report" Jan 1999]  

cell research funding: Stem cells

cell signalling proteomics: Proteomics categories

cell sorting: Cell sorters differ from cytometers in their ability to separate cells of interest from a complex mixture. Once a cell has been cytometrically characterized, the sorter uses a combination of electronic delays, electrostatic charging, and a static electromagnetic field to separate the chosen cell from the other cells in solution. Institute for Systems Biology, Seattle http://www.systemsbiology.org/Scientists_and_Research/Technology/Data_Generation/Cell_Sorting 
Related terms: FACS, flow cytometry, flow sorting.

cell strain: Cells having specific properties or markers derived from a primary culture or cell line. [IUPAC Tox]

cell therapies: Molecular Medicine & Diagnostics glossary

cell ontology: http://www.obofoundry.org/cgi-bin/detail.cgi?id=cell  A structured controlled vocabulary for cell types.  

cellome, cellomics: Omes & omics glossary

cellular bioinformatics: Bioinformatics glossary

cellular component: The place in the cell where a gene product is active. [Gene Ontology Consortium "Gene Ontology: tool for the unification of biology Nature Genetics 25: 25-29 May 2000] 
Related terms: Functional genomics biological function gene function,  Gene Ontology^TM Consortium; Proteins protein localization

cellular metabolism:  New genomic tools, particularly DNA microarrays, provide a previously unattainable global view of how gene expression patterns respond to various physiological stimuli, to mutations, and in disease states. Such knowledge provides a basis for insights into cellular metabolism that were not possible by studies of a few selected genes at a time. However, a DNA microarray, or any nucleic acid- based [DNA or RNA] methodology, is blind to many events that occur at the protein level. Therefore, they provide an indirect and incomplete picture of cellular function and hence additional information is needed for advancing human medicine and health care. The field of proteomics seeks to supply this knowledge by revealing the levels, activities, regulation, and interactions of every protein in the cell and how these quantities respond to a particular stimulus (e.g. drug, food, infection) or disease state or DNA alteration. In essence, proteomics builds on and complements the knowledge gained from  genomics .This significant effort in proteomics will provide discoveries about the cells' protein machinery that will likely yield important clinical applications. National Heart, Lung & Blood Institute, Proteomics Initiative, NIH, US,  2001 http://grants1.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-HL-02-004.html

cellular pathways: RNA interference (RNAi) is being commonly used as a screening tool for identifying and validating potential drug targets, exploring cellular pathways, and for whole-genome screening studies. The screens developed, using both small interfering RNA (siRNA) and short hairpin (shRNA), are now fairly robust and sensitive and can be performed in a reliable and high-throughput fashion.  RNAi for screening cellular pathways and targets, Discovery on Target, Nov 2009, Boston MA

See also under Expression glossary metabolic engineering

cellular phenotype: See cell phenotype

Google = about 1,160 Aug. 21, 2002; about 182,000 Nov 12, 2007

cellular proteins: Miniaturized chemical instruments, "Lab- on- a- Chip" technologies, are being developed for rapid, comprehensive analysis of cellular proteins, as an alternative to the slow and labor- intensive 2D gel methods currently used for protein mapping... The conventional 2D PAGE method for resolving cellular proteins is not only laborious but also has poor reproducibility, sensitivity, and sample recovery.  [RS Ramsey, et. al. "Microfabricated Microfluidic Devices for Proteome Mapping" DOE Human Genome Program Contractor-Grantee Workshop VII  Jan. 12- 16, 1999  Oakland, CA] http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/99santa/144.html

cellular protein complexes: Aim 1. Discover and define the repertoire of cellular protein complexes and machines in a comprehensive manner.  A target for Genomes to Life is to be able within 5 years to measure and characterize thousands of protein machines per year. This capability would enable scientists to generate a draft map of the protein machinery of a typical microbe of interest to DOE in a year. Data- collection goals for the Genomes to Life program within the next decade include mapping (to a saturation of 80% or more) the protein machines of a model microbe and a model eukaryote, along with several additional microbes having biochemical pathways of particular interest to DOE missions. Currently, only a few of the most stable and common protein machines are well characterized, but data suggest that hundreds, if not thousands, of other machines operate together to carry out cellular functions. Many important associations may be less stable, less abundant, and more dynamic, and these will require new methods to fully probe their composition. Molecular Machines of Life, DOE Genomes to Life, US http://www.doegenomestolife.org/program/goal1.html

cellular reprogramming: Stem cell glossary

cellular screening: RNA interference (RNAi) is being commonly used as a screening tool for identifying and validating potential drug targets, exploring cellular pathways, and for whole-genome screening studies. The screens developed, using both small interfering RNA (siRNA) and short hairpin (shRNA), are now fairly robust and sensitive and can be performed in a reliable and high-throughput fashion.  RNAi for screening cellular pathways and targets, Discovery on Target, Nov 2009, Boston MA

By tracking cellular activity with multiple fluorescent reporter systems, combined with high-resolution imaging and high-throughput image analysis, researchers can observe multiple intracellular events in individual cells. HCS enables functional analysis of target and pathway modulation in living cells, making it ideal for target and pathway validation, primary screening, and lead optimization. While the potential of HCS has been evident for years, the technology is just beginning to approach the capabilities necessary for large-scale adoption in drug discovery. Julia Boguslavsky, Cellular screening in sync, BioIT World, Sept 2003 http://www.bio-itworld.com/archive/091103/equipped.html 

cellular signaling: Cell signaling is at the core of most biological processes and represents a vibrant area of research. Signaling Update provides a one- stop overview of what's happening in cell signaling for the specialist researcher and the interested non- specialist alike. [Nature Publishing Group and AfCS] http://www.signaling-update.org/   Related term: Alliance for Cellular Signaling AfCS

cellular systems: The Cellular Systems Cluster focuses on the structure, function, and regulation of plant, animal and microbial cells, and their interactions with the environment and with one another. Areas supported include studies of the structure, function, and assembly of cellular elements, such as the cytoskeleton, membranes, organelles, intracellular compartments, intranuclear structures, and extracellular matrix, including eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell walls and envelopes. In addition, support is provided for the study of intracellular and transmembrane signal transduction mechanisms and cell-cell signaling processes, including those that occur in biofilms. Research on cellular recognition and self defense mechanisms is included. Research utilizing both traditional and innovative methodologies, multidisciplinary approaches, technique development, computation and modeling, and approaches that exploit genomic information is encouraged. Multi-disciplinary approaches to the study of cellular systems, including research carried out at the interfaces of biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics and computer science, and engineering, are also encouraged.  National Science Foundation, Biological Sciences PD 04-1114, 2007   http://www.nsf.gov/funding/pgm_summ.jsp?pims_id=12772&org=BIO&from=fund 

cellular therapies: Molecular medicine  

centromere: The clear constricted portion of the chromosome at which the chromatids are joined and by which the chromosome is attached to the spindle during cell division. MeSH, 1991

Chinese hamster ovary cells: See CHO cells.

chromatin: The material of CHROMOSOMES. It is a complex of DNA, HISTONES, and nonhistone proteins (CHROMOSOMAL PROTEINS, NON- HISTONE) found within the nucleus of a cell. MeSH, 1972

chromosome: A self-replicating structure consisting of DNA complexed with various proteins and involved in the storage and transmission of genetic information; the physical structure that contains genes (cf., plasmid). Eukaryotic cells have a characteristic number of chromosomes per cell (cf. ploidy [haploid or diploid]) and contain DNA as linear duplexes ... The chromosomes of bacteria consist of double- stranded, circular DNA molecules. MeSH

One of the threadlike "packages" of genes and other DNA in the nucleus of a cell. Different kinds of organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of  chromosomes, 46 in all: 44 autosomes and two sex chromosomes. Each parent contributes one chromosome to each pair, so children get half of  their chromosomes from their mothers and half  from their fathers. [NHGRI]

Narrower terms: autosome, centromere, chromatin, euchromatin, heterochromatin, homologous chromosomes, telomere Related terms chromosome maps, cytogenetics, diploid, euchromatic, haploid, karyotype, ploidies, ploidy, somatic cell hybridization

Chromosome databases See Databases & software directory.

chromosome maps, chromosome mapping: Maps genomic & genetic

chromosome microdissection: DNA

clone, clone bank, cloning, cloning vector: Genetic manipulation & disruption  

cryobiology: Cryobiology: International Journal of Low Temperature Biology and Medicine publishes research articles on all aspects of low temperature biology and medicine. Research Areas include: Cryoprotective additives and their pharmacological actions, Cryosurgery, Freeze-drying, Freezing, Frost hardiness in plants, Hibernation, Hypothermia, Medical applications of reduced temperature, Perfusion of organs. Cryobiology, Elsevier http://authors.elsevier.com/JournalDetail.html?PubID=622814&Precis=&popup=

Google = about 34,000 Sept. 23, 2004; about 375,000 Nov 12, 2007

Related terms: antifreeze proteins: Protein categories;  cryomedicine, cryotherapy: Molecular Medicine; cryoelectron tomography: Molecular Imaging; cryoelectron microscopy: Microscopy; cryogenic probe NMR & X-ray crystallography   
cryonics: Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics Google = about 149,000 Sept. 23, 2004

cultured cells: Cells propagated in vitro in special media conducive to their growth. Cultured cells are used to study developmental, morphologic, metabolic, physiologic, and genetic processes, among others MeSH 1972

cytogenetics: Branch of genetics which correlates the structure and number of chromosomes as seen in isolated cells with variation in genotype and phenotype. MeSH, 1967

Related terms: Genomics: genotype, phenotype

cytome, cytomics: -Omes & -omics

dendritic cells. A set of antigen- presenting cells present in lymph nodes, spleen and at low levels in blood, which are particularly active in stimulating T cells.  

developmental biology:  The field of biology which deals with the process of the growth and differentiation of an organism.  MeSH, 1990

dielectrophoresis: Chromatography & electrophoresis

differentiation: The process by which cells become structurally and functionally specialized during embryonic development. [Life Sciences] 

In cancer, refers to how mature (developed) the cancer cells are in a tumor. Differentiated tumor cells resemble normal cells and tend to grow and spread at a slower rate than undifferentiated or poorly- differentiated tumor cells, which lack the structure and function of normal cells and grow uncontrollably.  [CancerNet]

Related terms:  multipotent, pluripotent, totipotent, stem cells Narrower term: cell differentiation- or is this equivalent? Broader term: developmental biology

diploid: The number of chromosomes in most cells except the gametes. In humans, the diploid number is 46. [NHGRI] 

Broader term: ploidies, ploidy Related terms haploid; Sequencing haplotype

ES: See embryonic stem cells:

Embryonic stem cells ES: Cultured cells derived from the pluripotent inner cell mass of blastocyst- stage embryos. [NHLBI]

Use of stem cells has a number of promising research applications.  The British government has recently approved proposals for allowing stem cell research [Nature 409 (6819): 445, 25 Jan. 2001 and Nature 409:5, 2001] although the rest of Europe was predicted to continue to outlaw this research. 

Broader terms: Stem cells  Related term: hematopoietic stem cells.

enucleated: Genetic manipulation & disruption

euchromatin: Chromosome regions that are loosely packaged and more accessible to RNA polymerases than HETEROCHROMATIN. These regions also stain differentially in CHROMOSOME BANDING preparations.  MeSH, 2001

In humans are particularly rich in genes.

Euchromatin network http://www.euchromatin.net/index.html

eukaryotes: Organisms whose cells have their genetic material packed in a membrane- surrounded, structurally discrete nucleus and with well- developed cell organelles.  Eukaryotes include all organisms except archaebacteria and eubacteria (cg. prokaryotes). [IUPAC Biotech]

eukaryotic cells: Cells of the higher organisms, containing a true nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane MeSH, 1991

extracellular matrix: A meshwork- like substance found within the extracellular space and in association with the basement membrane of the cell surface. It promotes cellular proliferation and provides a supporting structure to which cells or cell lysates in culture dishes adhere. MeSH, 1984

Related term: Protein Structures basement membranes

FACS: Fluorescence activated cell sorter. 

Related terms: cell sorting, flow cytometry, flow sorting.

fibroblasts Connective tissue cells which secrete an extracellular matrix rich in collagen and other macromolecules. MeSH, 1965  Related terms: stem cells

flow cytometry: Technique for characterizing or separating particles such as beads or cells, usually on the basis of their relative fluorescence. [IUPAC Combinatorial Chemistry]

Technique using an instrument system for making, processing, and displaying one or more measurements on individual cells obtained from a cell suspension. Cells are usually stained with one or more fluorescent dyes specific to cell components of interest, e.g., DNA, and fluorescence of each cell is measured as it rapidly transverses the excitation beam (laser or mercury arc lamp). Fluorescence provides a quantitative measure of various biochemical and biophysical properties of the cell, as well as a basis for cell sorting. Other measurable optical parameters include light absorption and light scattering, the latter being applicable to the measurement of cell size, shape, density, granularity, and stain uptake. MeSH, 1982

Related terms: cell sorting, FACS, flow sorting; Labels, signaling & detection: fluorescence, dyes

flow sorting: Employs flow cytometry to separate, according to size, chromosomes isolated  from cells during cell division when they are condensed and stable. As the chromosomes flow singly past a laser beam, they are differentiated by analyzing the amount of DNA present, and individual chromosomes are directed to specific collection tubes. [Primer on Molecular Genetics, ORNL, US] http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/intro.html   Related terms: cell sorting, FACS, flow cytometry

fusion: The amalgamation of two distinct cells or macromolecules into a single integrated unit. [IUPAC Biotech] 
Narrower term: cell fusion.

gamete: Mature male or female reproductive cell (sperm or ovum) with a haploid set of chromosomes (23 for  humans). [DOE] 
Related term: germ cells

gene fusion: Fusion of structural genes to analyze protein behavior or fusion of regulatory sequences with structural genes to determine mechanisms of regulation. MeSH, 1998

gene library, genetic vector, genomic library: Genetic manipulation & disruption 

germ cells: The reproductive cells in multicellular organisms. Includes Ovum (Oocytes, Oogonia,   Zona Pellucida , Zygote) and Spermatozoa (Sperm Head + , Sperm Tail, Spermatids, Spermatocytes, Spermatogonia MeSH  
Related terms: gamete, germline mutations

germline mutation: Molecular Medicine

An organelle composed of membranous sacs that packages proteins into vesicles and sends them to the cell's surface or to lysosomes.  [NIGMS]

haploid: The number of chromosomes in a sperm or egg cell, half the diploid number. [NHGRI] 

A single set of chromosomes (half the full set of genetic material), present in the egg and sperm cells  of animals and in the egg and pollen cells of plants. Human beings have 23 chromosomes in their reproductive cells. Compare diploid.  [DOE]    Broader terms: ploidies, ploidy Related terms: diploid; Sequencing haplotype

hematopoiesis: The development and formation of various types of blood cells. MeSH 
Related terms: Stem cells embryonic stem cells, hematopoiesis, mesenchymal stem cells, multipotent, pluripotent, totipotent 

hepatocyte systems biology: Manipulation & disruption

hES: See human embryonic stem cells.

heterochromatin: The portion of chromosome material that remains condensed and is transcriptionally inactive during INTERPHASE. MeSH, 1972

Highly repetitive lengths of DNA with little genetic information.

homogeneous cell samples: See cellular resolution

homologous chromosomes: A pair of chromosomes containing the same linear gene sequences, each derived from one parent. [DOE]

host, host-vector system: Genetic manipulation & disruption 

human cloning: Human cloning and human dignity: an ethical report, Presidents Council on Bioethics, 2002  http://www.bioethics.gov/reports/cloningreport/index.html

human embryonic stem cells: Guidelines for Human Embryonic Stem cells, National Academy of Sciences, 2005  http://books.nap.edu/catalog/11278.html  See also pluripotent stem cell research, human, stem cells

hybridoma: Pharmaceutical biology

image analysis/image processing:  Assays & screening [in context of high -content screening]

immunohistochemistry: Labels, Signaling & detection

in silico biology, in silico modeling: Molecular modeling

karyotype: A photomicrograph of an individuals chromosomes arranged in a standard format showing the number, size, and shape of each chromosome type; used in low- resolution physical mapping to correlate gross chromosomal abnormalities with the characteristics of specific diseases. [DOE] 

Laser Capture Microscopy: Laser Capture Microdissection website, NIH http://dir.nichd.nih.gov/lcm/lcm.htm

Narrower term: navigated Laser Capture Microdissection;  Related terms: Expression expression microdissection, layered expression scanning, molecular profiling

library: Combinatorial libraries & synthesis

How does this relate to combinatorial library and related terms in Drug discovery & development (or more general meanings of  "library").  

Narrower terms: gene library, genomic library;  Microarrays  arrayed library; Sequencing DNA library 

live cell assays: Assays

lymphokines: Soluble protein factors generated by activated lymphocytes that affect other cells, primarily those involved in cellular immunity. MeSH 1974  Broader term: Protein categories: cytokines

lysis: Cell rupture caused by physical or chemical means, or by phage infection and propagation leading to the release of the cell content; also the death of microorganisms after the stationary phase of a batch fermentation. [IUPAC Biotech]

mammalian cell lines: Gene expression in mammalian cells is the foundation for protein production. As more protein-based products head into development, greater pressure is placed on enhancing processes to reach optimized cell lines.  Especially today, reducing the time needed to achieve high producers for product candidates is essential for trimming overall costs of a project. Mammalian Cell Lines, Aug  2009, Cambridge MA    Related terms: stem cells

meiosis: The reductive cell division which results in daughter cells containing one copy of each of the chromosomes of the parent. The entire meiotic process involves two separate divisions (meiosis I and meiosis II). The first division is a true reductive division with the chromosome number being halved, whereas the second division resembles mitosis in many ways. Thus, a diploid parental cell will give rise to haploid daughter cells (cf. ploidy). IUPAC Biotech] 

A special method of cell division, occurring in maturation of the germ cells, by means of which each daughter nucleus receives half the number of chromosomes characteristic of the somatic cells of the species. MeSH, 1968 
Related term: cell cycle

mesenchymal: Refers to cells that develop into connective tissue, blood vessels, and lymphatic tissue. [Cancernet] Part of the embryonic mesoderm.

Related terms: Stem cells mesenchymal, mesenchymal stem cells, mesoderm, hematopoietic stem cells

mesoderm:  The middle germ layer of the embryo. MeSH

metabolism, metabolite: Metabolic profiling

micellar nanocontainers: Nanoscience & miniaturization

Microbial Cell Project: Dept. of Energy, US http://microbialcellproject.org/  

microtissues: Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory can now control how cells connect with one another in vitro and assemble themselves into three-dimensional, multicellular microtissues. The researchers demonstrated their method by constructing a tailor-made artificial cell-signaling system, analogous to natural cell systems that communicate via growth factors.  A new way to assemble cells into 3D microtissues, Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, 2009 http://newscenter.lbl.gov/press-releases/2009/03/05/3-d-microtissues/

microdissection: See Laser Capture Microdissection, tissue microdissection

mitochondria: Organelles appearing in all eukaryotic cells which produce ATP as useful energy for the cell by oxidative phosphorylation. The proteins for the adenoseine  5’- triphosphate (ATP)- generating electron transport of the respiration chain are located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Mitochondria contain many enzymes of the citric acid cycle and for fatty acid [beta]- oxidation. Many of them are coded for by nuclear DNA. [IUPAC Biotech] 

Related terms: ATP,  mitochondrion; mitochondrial genes Gene definitions

mitochondrion: The cell organelle that converts the energy in sugars into ATP, thereby fueling the cell. [NIGMS]

mitosis: The process whereby a cell nucleus divides into two daughter nuclei, each having the same genetic component as the parent cell. [IUPAC Biotech] 

A method of indirect cell division by means of which the two daughter nuclei normally receive identical complements of the number of chromosomes of the somatic cells of the species MeSH Related term: cell cycle

mixed cell populations- expression signals: Expression

molecular motors: Nanoscience & Miniaturization

morphometry: Measurement of shape, structure and form.  Used in a variety of disciplines, including environmental studies, geology, imaging and cell biology.

multicellular: Practically speaking, few processes peculiar to multicellular organisms have meaning when abstracted from anatomy, a particularly good example being developmental processes. The general consensus is that 'when it gets multicellular, it gets complicated'. [Minutes of Gene Ontology Consortium Meeting 4- 6 November 2000 Lawrence Berkeley Labs Meeting)] http://www.geneontology.org/20001106_Berkeley.txt

multispectral cell analysis: Molecular imaging

NF-kappaB: Pharmaceutical Biology

nuclear transfer: Genetic manipulation & disruption 

nucleome: -Omes & -omics

nucleus: The central cell structure that houses the chromosomes. [NHGRI] 

Related terms: chromosomes, enucleated, mitochondria, organelles.

organelles: Separated components within a cell with specialized functions, e.g. nuclei (containing most of the genetic material), mitochondria (respiratory energy supply for the cell), chloroplasts (location of photosynthesis) etc. [IUPAC Biotech]

Specific, usually subcellular, particles of membrane- bound organized living substances present in  practically all eukaryotic cells, including mitochondria, the Golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, centrioles and the cell center, as well as the plastids of plant cells. Includes also the minute organs of protozoa concerned with such functions as locomotion and metabolism. MeSH, 1989

patch clamping: A technique for studying the electrical currents involved in the movement of ions across cell membranes. With this technique, an electrode is affixed to the membrane so that a small patch of membrane is electrically isolated, allowing currents through it can be determined. Patch clamping is a high-resolution technique, meaning that movements through one ion channel can be recorded. Patch clamping can also involve the use of very fine pipette to measure what is going on in or on an individual cell.  

patch clamp pipettes: Ultrasensitivity Related terms: single cell transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome

photobleaching: Useful for determining cellular structure. Labels, signaling & detection

plasmid, plasmids: Genetic manipulation & disruption

ploidies:  The degree of replication of the chromosome set in the karyotype. MeSH, 1976 

ploidy: Indicates the number of sets of chromosomes present in an organism, e.g. haploid (one) or diploid (two). [IUPAC Biotech]

predictive biology: Drug discovery & development

programmed cell death:  Frequently, the terms 'apoptosis' and 'programmed cell death' are used as synonyms. Programmed cell death was originally used in order to describe the locally and temporally defined cell death during embryogenesis. It was already in the middle of our century that cell death was recognized as a natural process in the development of organisms (Gluecksmann, 1951, Biol. Rev., 26: 59).  [Apoptopedia, Cell Death Encyclopedia, 2001] http://www.celldeath.de/encyclo/index.html Click on A, go to Apoptosis entry and click on more.

Narrower term: apoptosis

prokaryote: A unicellular organism characterized by the absence of a membrane- bound nucleus.. Includes bacteria, blue- green algae (Cyanobacteria) and mycoplasmas. [IUPAC Biotech]

quantitative Laser Capture Microdissection: In the field of proteomics, coupling laser capture microdissection (LCM) with sensitive quantitative chemiluminescent immunoassays has broad applicability when applied to normal, diseased, or genetically modified tissue. The NCI Prostate Group is developing this concept [as described on this webpage] and initial studies show the technology has broad applicability for the quantitation of protein molecules in pure populations of cells. NCI, CGAP, Protocols in Development Quantitative LCM http://cgap-mf.nih.gov/Protocols/ProtocolsInDevelopment/QuantitativeLCM.html

quiescence, restriction endonucleases: Genetic manipulation & disruption

ribosomes:  Subcellular unit composed of specific rRNA molecules and a large number of proteins that are responsible for protein synthesis. [IUPAC Compendium] 

Cellular organelle that is the site of protein synthesis. [NHGRI]

Early in 1958, a three-day symposium on microsomal particles in protein synthesis met at MIT, sponsored by the Biophysical Society, organized by Richard Roberts, who was head of a group at the Carnegie Institution in Washington... The most important development at the meeting was semantic. Roberts suggested that for clear and handy distinction between the particles and the amorphous cellular fraction of protein and fat in which they were found, the particles themselves should be called "ribosomes" - short for "ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction." The new term quickly spread into general use. [HJ Freeman, Eighth Day of Creation Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996, p. 338]

From the Greek soma body

ribozymes: RNA

second messenger: An intracellular metabolite or ion increasing or decreasing as a response to the stimulation of receptors by agonists, considered as the "first messenger". This generic term usually does not prejudge the rank order of intracellular biochemical events. [IUPAC Medicinal Chemistry] 

second messenger systems: Systems in which an intracellular signal is generated in response to an intercellular primary messenger such as a hormone or neurotransmitter. They are intermediate signals in cellular processes such as metabolism, secretion, contraction, phototransduction, and cell growth. Examples of second messenger systems are the adenyl cyclase- cyclic AMP system, the phosphatidylinositol diphosphate- inositol triphosphate system, and the cyclic GMP system. [MeSH, 1989]  

A multi-step signal amplification process used by the cell to transmit, for example, signals from many hormones that cannot enter the cell directly. [NIGMS]

signal transduction: Metabolic engineering & profiling

single cell detection: Ultrasensitivity

single cell NMR imaging: NMR & X-ray crystallography

single cell studies: Recent developments in optical imaging, particularly quantitative fluorescence microscopy; ultra- small volume sampling and analysis; incorporation of optically useful probes, [Labels, signaling & detection] such as green fluorescent protein into cellular constituents; combinations of photobleaching and imaging; and optical approaches to determining the rates and equilibria of intracellular processes clearly indicate the enormous potential of in vivo single cell studies for our understanding of cell physiology, as well as the remaining substantial difficulties. Biologists need tools capable of analyzing the genomic and proteomic information of the living single cell. The quantitation, localization, and identification of proteins within the cell, as well as full characterization of intracellular interactions involving proteins in their structural, catalytic, and control roles, will be essential for development of a comprehensive and integrative view of cell physiology. Furthermore, development of highly specific drugs must ultimately involve screening against in vivo cellular processes. Thus, the envisioned technology development will enable the application of profoundly powerful combinatorial approaches to understanding and regulating the interior world of the cell, as well as characterizing the cell- physiological consequences of rare phenotypes - particularly those associated with disease. [NCRR, NHGRI, NIGMS Integrated Genomics Technologies Request for Applications, Dec. 23, 1998] http://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/rfa-files/RFA-RR-99-003.html

somatic cell:  Any cell in the body except gametes and their precursors. [DOE] Are the precursors stem cells?

All body cells, except the reproductive cells. [NHGRI]

See also somatic cells Molecular Medicine

somatic cell hybridization: Genetic manipulation & disruption

sonocytology: [Jim] Gimzewski has discovered that living cells generate high- pitched sounds, a cytological song whose harmonies potentially encode a hidden language of health and disease. If we can decipher this microscopic symphony, we may be able to hear the difference between sick and healthy cells. Margaret Wertheim, Buckyballs and screaming cells: The amazing miniature world of UCLA chemist Jim Gimzewski, LA Weekly, Apr. 4-10, 2003 http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/20/features-wertheim.php

spliceosomes: Organelles in which the splicing and excision reactions that remove introns from precursor messenger RNA molecules occur. One component of a spliceosome is five small nuclear RNA molecules (U1, U2, U4, U5, U6) that, working in conjunction with proteins, help to fold pieces of RNA into the right shapes and later splice them into the message. [MeSH, 1993] 

Related term: splicing Sequences DNA & beyond

stem cells:  Relatively undifferentiated cells of the same lineage (family type) that retain the ability to divide and cycle throughout postnatal life to provide cells that can become specialized and take the place of those that die or are lost. Includes Fibroblasts, Hematopoietic Stem Cells, Erythroid Progenitor Cells, Tumor Stem Cell  MeSH, 1984 
Narrower terms:    Stem cells  embryonic stem cells, hematopopoietic stem cells, multipotent stem cells, totipotent stem cells, unipotent stem cells.  
Related terms: Gene definitions: pangenes  Genetic Manipulation & Disruption parthenotes

subcellular fractionation: Concentrating a sample by separating out certain compartments of the cell. Allows study of cellular compartments and can provide greater resolution and sensitivity. 

subcellular locations: This document lists the UniProtKB controlled vocabulary used for the subcellular locations (including the membrane topologies and orientations terms) in the SUBCELLULAR LOCATION lines. Subcell, UniProt SwissProt Protein Knowledge Base 2007  http://beta.uniprot.org/docs/subcell 

systems biology: Genetic manipulation & disruption

T cells: See T-Lymphocytes:

T-Lymphocytes: Lymphocytes responsible for cell- mediated immunity. Two types have been identified - cytotoxic (T-LYMPHOCYTES, CYTOTOXIC) and helper T-lymphocytes (T-LYMPHOCYTES, HELPER- INDUCER). They are formed when lymphocytes circulate through the thymus gland and differentiate to thymocytes. When exposed to an antigen, they divide rapidly and produce large numbers of new T cells sensitized to that antigen.  MeSH, 1990 

telomere: A terminal section of a chromosome which has a specialized structure and which is involved in chromosomal replication and stability. Its length is believed to be a few hundred base pairs. MeSH, 1992  

Involved in aging and senescence.

tissue culture: See cell culture. [IUPAC Biotech]

tissue engineering: Biomaterials & Bioengineering

tissue microdissection: A laboratory method that is used to procure specific cells or cell populations from a histology slide under direct microscopic visualization. The recovered cells can be studied with a variety of DNA, messenger RNA, and protein analysis methods, including new high- throughput gene expression and proteomics technologies. This approach is permitting investigators to comprehensively examine the molecular anatomy of cells in tissue sections for the first time. JW Gillespie, The role of tissue microdissection in cancer research. Cancer Journal 2001 Jan-Feb;7(1): 32- 39, Jan- Feb 2001

tissue models:  Biomaterials & Bioengineeering

tissue technologies:  The goal of reducing failure rates in discovery research is optimally achieved when using human tissues. However, clinically relevant genomic and proteomic test development using human tissue requires a specialized collection, handling, and banking methods to generate reliable analyses. Protocols for proper tissue procurement, specimen handling, and cryopreservation, as well as non- destructive collection of pure cell populations by laser capture microdissection, are key issues which need to be addressed to optimize results in drug discovery, as do standardization of fixation, retrieval, detection, and interpretation. 

Toll Like Receptors TLRs: A family of pattern recognition receptors characterized by an extracellular leucine-rich domain and a cytoplasmic domain that share homology with the INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR and the DROSOPHILA toll protein. Following pathogen recognition, toll-like receptors recruit and activate a variety of SIGNAL TRANSDUCING ADAPTOR PROTEINS. MeSH 2006 (1998)   

Wikipedia   http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toll-like_receptor 

transient molecular complexes:  Transient Molecular Complexes are temporary molecular complexes that are continuously created and destroyed within our cells. Our current level of understanding of cellular biology and the complex interactions that lead to the development and progression of diseases is primarily based upon easily characterized static models (which do not include transient complexes). Understanding interactions within transient complexes is essential for robust modeling that can accurately describe how diseases develop and progress. New Roadmap Emphasis areas for 2008, NIH Roadmap, http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/2008initiatives.asp 

vector: Yeast Artificial Chromosomes YACs: Genetic manipulation & disruption

virtual cell program: In silico & Molecular Modeling

IUPAC definitions are reprinted with the permission of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.

Bibliography
Cells Alive!, James. A. Sullivan, 2001 http://www.cellsalive.com/  Video and computer enhanced images of living cells and organisms.
cells.de, IWF Knowledge and Media GmbH, Germany http://www.cells.de/cellseng/index.jsp   Digital and interactive educational media about cellular and molecular biology.
ECACC European Collection of Cell Cultures, Culture Terminology, 2006 http://www.ecacc.org.uk/ 
International Federation of Cell Biology http://www.ifcbiol.org/
International Society for Stem Cell Research, Glossary, 2002, about 20 terms defined  http://tnt.tchlab.org/stemcells/glossary.htm  
Lackie JM and JAT Dow, Dictionary of Cell & Molecular Biology, Academic Press, 3^rd ed., 1999. 7,000+ definitions. 
Matveev, Vladimir, History of Cell Biology, http://actomyosin.narod.ru/history/history.htm
Society for In Vitro Biology Terminology associated with Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, http://www.sivb.org/edu_terminology.asp 2003, 
WWW Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology http://www.biochemweb.org/ 
WWW Virtual Library Developmental Biology, Society for Developmental Biology, 2004 http://www.sdbonline.org/archive/Other/VL_DB.html  

Alpha glossary List

How to look for other unfamiliar  terms